The short version of Research chemical fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
Reviewed 2026-06-27. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common name | Cardarine | Common internet and media name. |
| Research code | GW501516 | Also written GW-1516. |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Development status | Discontinued | Clinical development halted after rodent cancer findings. |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport | Listed by WADA; not approved as medicine. |
Published studies have examined GW501516 in animal models of obesity, insulin resistance, and exercise endurance. Early human trials reportedly ended, and development was discontinued after preclinical findings raised concerns about cancer in some rodent studies. Regulatory agencies have not approved cardarine for any medical use. Its availability through non-pharmaceutical channels raises questions about identity, purity, and legal status that are separate from its laboratory pharmacology. Those questions are often addressed through analytical testing rather than assumptions about product labels.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
The pharmacological interest in cardarine centers on PPARδ activation and its downstream effects on lipid handling and mitochondrial function. In animal studies, PPARδ agonists have been associated with changes in exercise endurance and fatty acid utilization, though results vary by model and protocol. Human data remain sparse, and the absence of large controlled trials limits conclusions about efficacy. Researchers often describe the compound as a tool for probing PPARδ biology rather than a proven therapeutic agent.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
Many returning coalition soldiers reported illnesses following their action in the war, a phenomenon known as Gulf War syndrome (GWS) or Gulf War illness (GWI). Common symptoms reported are chronic fatigue, fibromyalgia, and gastrointestinal disorder. There has been widespread speculation and disagreement about the causes of the illness and the possibly related birth defects. Researchers found that infants born to male veterans of the 1991 war had higher rates of two types of heart valve defects. Some children born after the war to Gulf War veterans had a certain kidney defect that was not found in Gulf War veterans' children born before the war. Researchers have said that they did not have enough information to link birth defects with exposure to toxic substances. In 1994, the US Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs with Respect to Export Administration published a report entitled, "U.S. Chemical and Biological Warfare-Related Dual Use Exports to Iraq and their Possible Impact on the Health Consequences of the Gulf War". This publication, called the Riegle Report, summarized testimony this committee had received establishing that the U.S. had in the 1980s supplied Saddam Hussein with chemical and biological warfare technology, that Saddam had used such chemical weapons against Iran and his own native Kurds, and possibly against U.S. soldiers as well, plausibly contributing to the GWS. A 2022 study by Robert W. Haley of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, et al., of 1,016 U.S.
=== St–Sz === Frank Stahl (1929–2025), US molecular biologist known for the Meselson-Stahl experiment Donald F. Steiner (1930–2014). American biochemist at the University of Chicago, who made ground breaking discoveries in the treatment of diabetes. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Joan Steitz FRS (foreign associate) (b. 1941). American biochemist at Yale University, best known for her work on RNA. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Thomas A. Steitz FRS (foreign associate) (1940–2018). American biochemist at Yale University, best known for his pioneering work on the ribosome. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2009. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Marjory Stephenson FRS (one of the first two women elected) (1885-1948). British biochemist and microbiologist at Cambridge University, most widely remembered for her seminal book, Bacterial Metabolism. Audrey Stevens (1932–2010). American biochemist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, co-discoverer of RNA polymerase. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Bruce Stone (1928–2008). Australian biochemist known for work in cereal and grass polysaccharides. Foundation Professor of Biochemistry at La Trobe University (1972–1993). Lubert Stryer (1938–2024). American biophysicist at Stanford who pioneered the use of fluorescence spectroscopy, particularly Förster resonance energy transfer, to monitor the structure and dynamics of biological macromolecules. He is best known for his textbook Biochemistry. Member Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Paul K.
=== Energy === Production of oleaginous microalgae are becoming attractive as alternative sources of biofuels with potential to meet global demand for renewable bioenergy. The enhanced oil recovery (EOR) using extracellular biopolymers from microalgae may be an upcoming field of application. In recent years, EPS sugars from marine bacteria have been found to speed up the cleanup of oil spills. During the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, these EPS-producing bacteria were able to grow and multiply rapidly. It was later found that their EPS sugars dissolved the oil and formed oil aggregates on the ocean surface, which sped up the cleaning process. These oil aggregates also provided a valuable source of nutrients for other marine microbial communities. This let scientists modify and optimize the use of EPS sugars to clean up oil spills.
October 8 – The US begins direct negotiations with the military junta while continuing sanctions against its leader, Min Aung Hlaing, for human rights violations, notably the Rohingya genocide. The Pentagon instructs the US Central Command to get ready in case direct military operations against Iran were to resume. U.S. and Israeli officials suggests that joint strikes against Iranian nuclear, energy, and infrastructure sites might take place prior to either the November US midterm elections or the late October Israeli general election, even though Trump had not made a final decision or established a timeline. Internal assessments and energy analysts cautions that renewed hostilities would fail to lower immediate gasoline prices and could instead cause a sharp spike in global oil prices, despite the administration's goal of a military breakthrough to eventually lower domestic fuel costs. Further sanctions are put by the US on Iran's shadow fleet.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Thorium dioxide is a refractory material with the highest melting point among any known oxide (3390 °C). Adding 0.8–1% ThO2 to tungsten stabilizes its structure, so the doped filaments have better mechanical stability to vibrations. To dissolve ThO2 in acids, it is heated to 500–600 °C; heating above 600 °C produces a very resistant to acids and other reagents form of ThO2. Small addition of fluoride ions catalyses dissolution of thorium dioxide in acids. Two protactinium oxides have been obtained: PaO2 (black) and Pa2O5 (white); the former is isomorphic with ThO2 and the latter is easier to obtain. Both oxides are basic, and Pa(OH)5 is a weak, poorly soluble base. Decomposition of certain salts of uranium, for example UO2(NO3)·6H2O in air at 400 °C, yields orange or yellow UO3. This oxide is amphoteric and forms several hydroxides, the most stable being uranyl hydroxide UO2(OH)2. Reaction of uranium(VI) oxide with hydrogen results in uranium dioxide, which is similar in its properties with ThO2. This oxide is also basic and corresponds to the uranium hydroxide U(OH)4. Plutonium, neptunium and americium form two basic oxides: An2O3 and AnO2. Neptunium trioxide is unstable; thus, only Np3O8 could be obtained so far. However, the oxides of plutonium and neptunium with the chemical formula AnO2 and An2O3 are well characterized.
==== Hong Kong ==== In 2022, the HKSAR Government proposed a ban on any use of cannabidiol (including for academic research and by medical professionals) within the Hong Kong territory, making Hong Kong the first jurisdiction in the world to have complete prohibition of cannabidiol, starting from February 1, 2023, in part due to the possible presence of THC which is illegal in Hong Kong, according to a research subsidized by the Hong Kong SAR Government.
== History == The Kingdom of Mysore was one of the three largest princely states in British India. Upon India's independence from Britain in 1947, Maharaja Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar signed the instrument of accession, with the Union of India on 9 August 1947. The territories of the erstwhile princely state of Mysore were then reconstituted into a state within the Union, on 26 January 1950, with its administrative integration into the Indian Union. In 1953 during the formation of Andhra, the Bellary district was transferred from Madras to Mysore.
Redox ( RED-oks, REE-doks, reduction–oxidation or oxidation–reduction) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of the reactants change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in the oxidation state. The oxidation and reduction processes occur simultaneously in the chemical reaction. Redox reactions fall into two classes. In electron transfer, a single electron usually flows from the atom, ion, or molecule being oxidized to the one being reduced; this is often described in terms of redox couples and electrode potentials. In atom transfer, an atom passes from one substrate to another; for example, in the rusting of iron the oxidation state of the iron atoms increases as the metal converts to an oxide and oxygen is reduced as it absorbs the released electrons. Redox reactions occur throughout nature and industry. Cellular respiration and photosynthesis, combustion, and the corrosion of metals all proceed through redox chemistry, as do the reactions that power batteries and other electrochemical cells. Industry uses redox reactions to extract metals from their ores by smelting, to electroplate objects, and to manufacture chemicals such as nitric acid. In soils, sediments, and water, redox gradients drive the biogeochemical cycling of elements.
== Medical use == Polymyxin antibiotics are relatively neurotoxic and nephrotoxic, so are usually used only as a last resort if modern antibiotics are ineffective or are contraindicated. Typical uses are for infections caused by strains of multiple drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa or carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Polymyxins have less effect on Gram-positive organisms, and are sometimes combined with other agents (as with trimethoprim/polymyxin) to broaden the effective spectrum. Polymyxins B are not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, so they are only administered orally if the goal is to disinfect the GI tract. Another route of administration is chosen for systemic treatment, e.g., parenteral (often intravenously) or by inhalation. They are also used externally as a cream or drops to treat otitis externa (swimmers ear), and as a component of triple antibiotic ointment to treat and prevent skin infections.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Column selection === The choice of column depends on the sample and the active measured. The main chemical attribute regarded when choosing a column is the polarity of the mixture, but functional groups can play a large part in column selection. The polarity of the sample must closely match the polarity of the column stationary phase to increase resolution and separation while reducing run time. The separation and run time also depends on the film thickness (of the stationary phase), the column diameter and the column length.
The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects. Almost all of the actions Herodotus described served one of these two functions. First, the brain was removed from the cranium through the nose; the gray matter was discarded. Modern mummy excavations have shown that instead of an iron hook inserted through the nose as Herodotus claims, a rod was used to liquefy the brain via the cranium, which then drained out the nose by gravity. The embalmers then rinsed the skull with certain drugs that mostly cleared any residue of brain tissue and also had the effect of killing bacteria. Next, the embalmers made an incision along the flank with a sharp blade fashioned from an Ethiopian stone and removed the contents of the abdomen. Herodotus does not discuss the separate preservation of these organs and their placement either in special jars or back in the cavity, a process that was part of the most expensive embalming, according to archaeological evidence. The abdominal cavity was then rinsed with palm wine and an infusion of crushed, fragrant herbs and spices; the cavity was then filled with spices including myrrh, cassia, and, Herodotus notes, "every other sort of spice except frankincense", also to preserve the person. The body was further dehydrated by placing it in natron, a naturally occurring salt, for 70 days. Herodotus insists that the body did not stay in the natron longer than 70 days.
If there is no hypoglycemia at the time of the symptoms, this condition is called idiopathic postprandial syndrome. It might be an "adrenergic postprandial syndrome" — blood glucose levels are normal, but the symptoms are caused through autonomic adrenergic counterregulation. Often, this syndrome is associated with emotional distress and anxious behaviour of the patient. This is often seen in dysautonomic disorders as well. Dietary recommendations for reactive hypoglycemia can help to relieve symptoms of postprandial syndrome.
== Characterization == Several qualitative tests are used to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Two of them use solutions of copper(II) ions: Benedict's reagent (Cu2+ in aqueous sodium citrate) and Fehling's solution (Cu2+ in aqueous sodium tartrate). The reducing sugar reduces the copper(II) ions in these test solutions to copper(I), which then forms a brick red copper(I) oxide precipitate. Reducing sugars can also be detected with the addition of Tollens' reagent, which consist of silver ions (Ag+) in aqueous ammonia. When Tollens' reagent is added to an aldehyde, it precipitates silver metal, often forming a silver mirror on clean glassware. 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid is another test reagent, one that allows quantitative detection. It reacts with a reducing sugar to form 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, which can be measured by spectrophotometry to determine the amount of reducing sugar that was present. Some sugars, such as sucrose, do not react with any of the reducing-sugar test solutions. However, a non-reducing sugar can be hydrolyzed using dilute hydrochloric acid. After hydrolysis and neutralization of the acid, the product may be a reducing sugar that gives normal reactions with the test solutions. All carbohydrates are converted to aldehydes and respond positively in Molisch's test. But the test has a faster rate when it comes to monosaccharides.
A small number of species, such as ducks and geese, lose all of their flight feathers at once, temporarily becoming flightless. As a general rule, the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair. Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae. The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers, in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail. The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward, secondaries inward, and the tail from centre outward. Before nesting, the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly. The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation. Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily, spending an average of around 9% of their daily time on this. The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland; these secretions protect the feathers' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent, inhibiting the growth of feather-degrading bacteria. This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants, which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting, to remove feather parasites. The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks, claws, and spurs. They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus, but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is a PPARδ agonist, while selective androgen receptor modulators act on androgen receptors. The two classes differ in receptor target and downstream effects.
Preclinical rodent studies reported cancers, including liver and bladder tumors, at tested doses. The human relevance of those findings is uncertain, but development was discontinued. No approved human product resulted.
No. It remains an investigational compound without approved therapeutic labeling. Sports regulators prohibit its use, and health agencies have warned against consuming it.
Legal status varies by country, but cardarine is not approved as a medicine in major jurisdictions. It is often sold as a research chemical, a category that may not be lawful for human use. Buyers should check local laws and product labels carefully.