This is a working overview of PPARδ, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2026-04-01 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Sporting authorities added GW501516 to prohibited lists after it appeared in athlete samples and online markets. The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a hormone and metabolic modulator, and its use can lead to an anti-doping rule violation. Some early laboratory work suggested effects on fatty acid oxidation and endurance-related metabolism in animals, but those findings do not establish safe or effective use in people. Reports of adverse events in humans are scarce and often anecdotal, which complicates risk assessment.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
GW501516 acts as a selective agonist at PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in lipid handling and energy metabolism. Activation of PPARδ in preclinical models increases fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and exercise endurance in rodents. These effects have made the compound a subject of metabolic research and also a target for sport anti-doping rules. In humans, however, controlled studies are limited, and whether similar endurance or metabolic changes occur at tolerated exposures remains an open question. The receptor’s broad tissue distribution also means downstream effects may vary by organ and condition.
Detection of GW501516 in biological samples generally relies on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping analysis, while blood or plasma may be used in research settings. Sample preparation can involve enzymatic hydrolysis, protein precipitation, or solid-phase extraction before instrumental analysis. Because the compound undergoes metabolism, assays may target the parent molecule, one or more metabolites, or both. Detection windows are not fixed; they depend on factors such as dose, route, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Reference standards are required for accurate identification and quantification.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| IUPAC name | {4-[({4-methyl-2-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,3-thiazol-5-yl}methyl)sulfanyl]phenoxy}acetic acid | Systematic name for GW501516 |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the parent compound |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Includes carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
| Molecular weight | 453.5 g/mol | Approximate value for the neutral form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical description for purified laboratory material |
GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation shifts some metabolic pathways in preclinical models, which is why the compound has been studied for lipid disorders and exercise-related endpoints. The exact downstream effects in humans are incompletely mapped. PPARδ is expressed in many tissues, including skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, so broad activation may have varied consequences. Researchers continue to examine how selective or partial activation might alter the balance between benefits and risks.
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
Preclinical research reported that GW501516 increased running endurance in mice and improved lipid profiles in some animal species. Early human trials explored effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and glucose handling, but the program was discontinued. Published human data are sparse and do not establish efficacy for any condition. Studies also examined PPAR delta in cancer biology, with conflicting findings across models. The relationship between receptor activation, tissue context, and disease risk remains an active area of investigation.
This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American Manhattan Project for plutonium production. Because of this effect, designers must make provisions to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel) over the initial value needed to start the chain reaction. For the same reason, the xenon fission products produced in a nuclear explosion and a power plant differ significantly as a large share of 135Xe will absorb neutrons in a steady state reactor, while in a bomb it can be assumed that none of the 135I will have had time to decay to xenon before the explosion disperses it, removing it from the neutron radiation. Relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes are also found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of this fission gas from cracked fuel rods or fissioning of uranium in cooling water. The concentrations of these isotopes are still usually low compared to the naturally occurring radioactive noble gas 222Rn. Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, Xe isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the Solar System. The I-Xe method of dating gives the time elapsed between nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the solar nebula (xenon being a gas, only that part of it that formed after condensation will be present inside the object). Xenon isotopes are also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation.
==== Italy, South Leigh and Prague ==== The following year, in April 1947, the Thomases travelled to Italy, after Thomas had been awarded a Society of Authors scholarship. They stayed first in villas near Rapallo and then Florence, before moving to a hotel in Rio Marina on the island of Elba. On their return, Thomas and family moved, in September 1947, into the Manor House in South Leigh, just west of Oxford, purchased and rented to Thomas for £1 per week by Margaret Taylor. He continued with his work for the BBC, completed a number of film scripts and worked further on his ideas for Under Milk Wood, including a discussion in late 1947 of The Village of the Mad (as the play was then called) with the BBC producer Philip Burton. He later recalled that, during the meeting, Thomas had discussed his ideas for having a blind narrator, an organist who played for a dog and two lovers who wrote to each other every day but never met. In March 1949 Thomas travelled to Prague. He had been invited by the Czech government to attend the inauguration of the Czechoslovak Writers' Union. Jiřina Hauková, who had previously published translations of some of Thomas's poems, was his guide and interpreter. In her memoir, Hauková recalls that at a party in Prague, Thomas "narrated the first version of his radio play Under Milk Wood." She describes how he outlined the plot about a town that was declared insane, mentioning the organist who played for sheep and goats and the baker with two wives.
=== Alternative medicine === In countries such as China, herbs used alone or with antithyroid medications are used to treat hyperthyroidism. Very low quality evidence suggests that traditional Chinese herbal medications may be beneficial when taken along with routine hyperthyroidism medications; however, there is no reliable evidence to determine the effectiveness of Chinese herbal medications for treating hyperthyroidism.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Influenza === A study of an outbreak of an (H1N1) influenza in an Israeli military unit of 336 healthy young men to determine the relation of cigarette smoking to the incidence of clinically apparent influenza, revealed that, of 168 smokers, 69% had influenza, as compared with 47% of non-smokers. Influenza was also more severe in the smokers; 51% of them lost work days or required bed rest, or both, as compared with 30% of the non-smokers. According to a study of 1,900 male cadets after the 1968 Hong Kong A2 influenza epidemic at a South Carolina military academy, compared with people who did not smoke, people who smoked heavily (more than 20 cigarettes per day) had 21% more illnesses and 20% more bed rest, people who smoked lightly (20 cigarettes or fewer per day) had 10% more illnesses and 7% more bed rest. The effect of cigarette smoking on epidemic influenza was studied prospectively among 1,811 male college students. Clinical influenza incidence among those who smoked 21 or more cigarettes daily was 21% higher than that of people who did not smoke. Influenza incidence among people who smoked 1 to 20 cigarettes daily was intermediate between those who did not smoke and people who smoked heavily. Surveillance of a 1979 influenza outbreak at a military base for women in Israel revealed that influenza symptoms developed in 60% of the current smokers vs. 42% of the non-smokers. Smoking seems to cause a higher relative influenza risk in older populations than in younger populations.
=== 13 April === The BBC reported that the UK plans to send a third Westland Sea King helicopter to Ukraine in the "coming weeks", with the Ukrainian crew being trained in its maintenance at a base in "southern England".
== Taxonomy == The classification of this species has been revised in recent decades. Puffballs, earthballs, earthstars, stinkhorns and several other kinds of fungi were once thought to be related and were known as the gasteromycetes or 'stomach' fungi, because the fertile material develops inside spherical or pear-shaped fruiting bodies; however, this group is now known to be polyphyletic. Today, some authors place the giant puffball and other members of the genus Calvatia in order Agaricales. The giant puffball has also been placed in two other genera, Lycoperdon and Langermannia, in years past. The current view is that the giant puffball belongs in Calvatia.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A carboxylic acid and a secondary amine group located on the rim of the cup and can participate in ionic interactions. Vancomycin stationary phases operate in reversed, normal and polar organic phase modes. Wide range of chiral analysis has been done using chirobiotic CSPs. The antihypertensive drugs viz. oxprenolol, pindolol, propranolol have been separated using vancomycin and teicoplanin chirobiotic CSPS. The NSAID drugs ketoprofen and ibuprofen has been separated using ristocetin CSP.
Acrogeria Berardinelli-Seip congenital lipodystrophy (congenital generalized lipodystrophy) Cockayne syndrome Ehlers–Danlos syndromes, progeroid form Gerodermia osteodysplastica Hallermann–Streiff syndrome Mandibuloacral dysplasia Neonatal progeroid syndrome (Wiedemann–Rautenstrauch syndrome) Nestor-Guillermo syndrome Penttinen syndrome Petty–Laxova–Weidemann progeroid syndrome POLR3A-related Wiedemann–Rautenstrauch syndrome PYCR1-related Wiedemann–Rautenstrauch-like syndrome Werner syndrome
Test a drug–fruit combination in humans Test a fruit chemically for the presence of the interacting polyphenol compounds Test a fruit genetically for the genes needed to make the interacting polyphenol compounds The first approach involves risk to trial volunteers. The first and second approaches have another problem: the same fruit cultivar could be tested twice with different results. Depending on growing and processing conditions, concentrations of the interacting polyphenol compounds can vary dramatically. The third approach is hampered by a paucity of knowledge of the genes in question.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.
It is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency as a hormone and metabolic modulator. Athletes who test positive for GW501516 can face sanctions, including suspensions and loss of results.
Cardarine is a common or trade-style name, while GW501516 is the research code for the same chemical entity. Some sources also use Endurobol or GSK-516. The names refer to the same compound, not distinct drugs.
Cardarine targets PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. It does not bind the androgen receptor in the way SARMs do.